Science and Inventions

India has recently taken great strides to join the Green movement, such as tightening up environmental regulation or installing solar panels, but the approach of Diwali is no exception. Known as the festival of lights, Diwali is an important event in Hindi culture. It has long been custom for people to celebrate the festival by shooting off fireworks, but this year, there will be a more eco-friendly approach; firecrackers made from recycled paper, which lack the harmful chemicals found in typical fireworks.

IANS cites A. Muthu, a fireworks dealer in Tamil Nadu, who says, “Unlike the normal cracker making method, the eco-friendly crackers are based on vacuum combustion method. These crackers produce colourful sparks with a considerable sound and less smoke.”

Muthu continues, “All the major metros demand eco-friendly crackers, while people in villages and small towns still prefer high-decibel crackers.” As India turns greener, more and more smokeless firecrackers are being produced, in response to demand. “With demand increasing for environment-friendly crackers, we are producing more of them by adding less of chemicals like sulphur and potassium nitrate,” adds fellow dealer S. Abumandi.

IANS also cites a shopkeeper in Delhi, Piyush Sharma, who claims, “There is definitely a shift in choice among the customers. Earlier, they used to prefer high-decibel crackers. Now, over 55 percent go for eco-crackers, which do not cause much noise pollution.”

While turning to eco-friendly firecrackers is a move in the right direction, there are more prominent ways in which India is going green. In one ambitious plan, 100,000 Indian children will implement a project known as Green India Mission, or GIM. The goal of GIM is to increase India’s forest coverage from 20 percent to 33 percent over the next ten years. This $9 billion plan is one of eight plans that are a part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change. Indian news reports, “In view of the massive urbanisation and construction of houses and infrastructure, parks, grasslands, wetlands and open spaces across India would be in danger. Under the GIM, these areas would be protected.” Tough laws have to be enacted for everlasting protection of the open spaces.”

The greenhouse is the building in which plants are grown. The greenhouses vary in size very small to huge areas and the material that covers it could be either glass or plastic.

In some countries the greenhouses are built in huge areas, so considering to benefit from those areas in other purpose could be a breakthrough.

ULMA Agrícola consortium and Tecnalia research center in Spain have produced new photovoltaic solar panels that can cover the greenhouses and generate electricity as well without allowing the shades to effect the plants inside the greenhouse.

Depending on the season of the year, solar radiation can be diverted by taking advantage of the annual oscillation in the height of the sun’s trajectory; this is achieved through a lens-based optical system. Without the need for any solar mechanical monitoring, the technology allows the needs imposed by any crop to be met. So during the winter (October-February), the light inside the greenhouse, a key parameter for correct plant development, barely falls. But in summer the optical system diverts solar radiation towards the photovoltaic cells that make up the module, thus achieving a dual aim: to provide the greenhouse with cooling during the critical period of high temperatures and to increase electricity production through the photovoltaic system.
Right now, tests are being carried out in an ULMA Agrícola greenhouse belonging to the Neiker-Tecnalia R+D centre and located in Derio (Bizkaia, Basque Country). The crops selected for the initial tests are tomato and pepper. These two crops have been selected for the following reasons: they are two of the most common worldwide, they require a very large amount of light, and they are high added-value products within greenhouse agriculture.
In the tests conducted throughout the summer, the most critical parameters of the crop were measured, like total and PAR radiation, humidity and temperature. In addition, crop quality and production in the photovoltaic module were monitored by comparing them with data obtained under a normal glass roof. Positive results were obtained, and between mid November and the end of March 2012 a winter test is due to be carried out in which the same values will be monitored and from which similar results are expected to emerge. As regards electricity production, the first measures point to a 15% annual improvement over a standard photovoltaic system.
So the new module allows photovoltaic equipment to coexist with crops. What is more, it acts as an element for the seasonal control of the radiation and interior temperature of the greenhouse, apart from constituting additional support for the farmer’s economic activity through the sale and/or private use of the energy obtained.
The technology developed enables the problems associated with winter over-shading and summer radiation to be avoided in a simple, robust and effective way. Having validated this in the field using ULMA Agrícola greenhouses, the consortium is aiming to have a product ready to be marketed by the second half of 2012.

uPVC stands for unplasticised polyvinyl chloride, a type of polyvinyl chloride utilised in the manufacture of uPVC doors and window frames.

Polyvinyl chloride is the world’s third most produced type of plastic after polyethylene and polypropylene.

uPVC is an extremely popular choice for the manufacture of uPVC doors and window frames because it is extremely durable, long lasting and cheap to produce. Experts estimate that by 2016 there will be more than 40 million tonnes of PVC produced.

PVC was invented by accident in the 19^th century. First to make the discovery was Henri Victor Regnault and in 1872 by  Eugen Baumann. Both scientists found the polymer as a white solid within a flask of vinyl chloride which had been left in the sun.

In the early part of the 20^th century both a Russian chemist called Ivan Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte, who worked for Griesheim-Elektron, a German chemical company, attempted to use PVC in manufacturing processes, but this proved difficult as the material was brittle and hard to handle.

By 1926, Waldo Semon discovered a way to blend PVC with other additives, plasticisong it and making it easier to handle. After this PVC began to be widely used to manufacture a number of items.

Today, PVC is used to manufacture many of the world’s most essential products:

Pipes

Around half of all the PVC manufactured globally is used to make pipes. PVC works well when manufactured into pipes because it is light, durable and does not react with water. In addition, pipe joints made from uPVC are impenetrable, meaning no leaks and uPVC does not corrode like metal.

Cables

PVC can be used to insulate electric cables. That’s because it’s non conductive and extremely durable and energy efficient.

uPVC

Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride is commonly used in the manufacture of uPVC doors and window frames. In this form it is extremely strong, durable and long lasting. In addition to doors and windows, uPVC is also used to manufacture fascias, siding and weatherboarding.

Signage

Due to its light weight, durability and ability to be moulded and handled easily, PVC is often used in the production of commercial signage.

Clothes and furniture

PVC clothing gained popularity in the 1970’s when it became a favourite item of the punk movement. Now PVC can be manufactured into faux leather that is waterproof and hard wearing. IN addition it can be used to make garden furniture that is also extremely durable and weather resistant.

Thrombin is an enzime that is available in our body. It is also a medication that is used in hospitals, as a coagulant. It stops bleeding instantly.

But till now it was not used for the battle fields, which is a place that it is needed so much due due to it is not practical in transferring to the battle fields.

MIT researchers have reached a new breakthrough that will allow using thrombin in the battle fields and save

a lot of soldiers lives.

The researchers, led by Paula Hammond and funded by MIT’s Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies and a Denmark-based company, Ferrosan Medical Devices A/S, created a spray coating that includes thrombin, a clotting agent found in blood. Sponges coated with this material can be stored stably and easily carried by soldiers or medical personnel. The sponges could also prove valuable in civilian hospitals, says Hammond, the David H. Koch Professor in Engineering.
Uncontrolled bleeding is the leading cause of trauma death on the battlefield. Traditional methods to halt bleeding, such as tourniquets, are not suitable for the neck and many other parts of the body. In recent years, researchers have tried alternative approaches, all of which have some disadvantages. Fibrin dressings and glues have a short shelf life and can cause an adverse immune response, and zeolite powders are difficult to apply under windy conditions and can cause severe burns. Another option is bandages made of chitosan, a derivative of the primary structural material of shellfish exoskeletons. Those bandages have had some success but can be difficult to mold to fit complex wounds.

The sun has been the main source of light for millions of years, light travel from the sun to the earth through space till it reaches earth. The distance that light has to cover is measured by the light year which equals 9.4605284*10¹⁵ meters. In the year 1838 Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846) a German astronomer and mathematician was able to determine the light year as a measurement for the distance between the earth and the sun and distance between the planets.

Optical spectrum is the light that we can see by naked eye, the light frequency which we can see is between 400 to 790 terahertz. The light that we can see is classified to seven parts that are visual when the light is passed through a prism or through a rainbow. The seven colors of light were first mentioned in the Samba Purana (an old text) in the Ancient India that might go back to 3500 years ago. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon (1214-1294) an English philosopher noticed the optical spectrum in a glass of water.

In the 17th century, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) the famous astronomer, mathematician, physicist and philosopher explained the visible spectrum (optical spectrum) and discovered that the prism can show the seven colors of the light. Newton named the seven colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) the German physicist observed that the Newton theory is only true in the narrow beams, but in the wide beams the the light will not split to seven colors, but only to reddish yellow on one edge and blue in the other edge and white in between.

In the 19th century, William Herschel (1738-1822) a German-British astronomer was able to discover the Infrared which have a frequency from 1 to 400 terahertz, that is why it is unseen by the naked eye.

In the 19th century, Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776-1810) a German chemist and physicist was able to discover the Ultraviolet which have a frequency higher than the white light that we can see by our eyes that is why it is cannot be seen.

In the year 1802, Thomas Young (1773-1829) the English scientist, proved that the light is consisted of waves, he produced the measure of each color wavelength.

Each optical fibre element is most usually coated with layers of plastic and held within a tube which is designed to work well in the environment in which it is used.

Fibres are formed into bundles or ribbons within the cable and generally coated with polyimide or acrylate polymer.

Although the coating protects fibres from any damage it does not affect their functionality. Once fibres have been formed in to bundles or ribbons they are then encased within a layer of durable resin or a core tube which forms the centre of the cable.

After this the core is covered in a number of layers of sheathing, which can be made from various materials. This then forms the cable. In some cases, ‘dark’ glass is placed between the fibres. This helps to absorb any light and stop any light leaking from one cable into another. This is designed to reduce ‘flare’ or ‘cross talk’ between fibres which helps them to function more efficiently.

Indoor Cables

When utilised indoors, enclosed, jacketed fibres are generally used. These contain a flexible fibrous polymer bundle such as Aramid. This is held within a lightweight covering of plastic which produces a simple cable. The end of each cable will be fitted with a terminator which means the cable is easy to connect and disconnect form any appliance it is being used with.

Outdoor or Robust Cables

When a fibre optic cable is being used outdoors it needs to be more robustly constructed in order to withstand wear and tear. One of the main types of cable construction is known as ‘loose-tube construction’. Fibre is placed into semi rigid tubing meaning the cable is able to stretch but the fibre won’t stretch.

This means that the fibre is protected from the elements, such as heat stretching during hot weather and protected from being stretched out during the laying process. To protect the cable from water, copper tubing and jelly or powder that repels water can be used.

Strength and Reliability

Fibre optic cables are in general extremely strong as well as being extremely powerful and efficient, which is why fibre optic cable has become widely used in all types of application since its invention. However, the strength of a cable can be compromised within the manufacturing process by tiny surface flaws. These are unavoidable within the manufacturing process. This is taken into account when cables are fitted to ensure that the correct cable strength is used. The three main factors which can lead to cable degradation, damge or failure are known as ‘zero stress aging’, static fatigues’ and ‘dynamic fatigues’.

Modern Cable Use

Modern fibre optic cables are available with a variety of different coverings depending on what they are to be used for. Uses can include being buried within trenches to create lines for broadband internet connection, use as power lines, telephone lines, or within submarines or aeroplanes.

Dark Fibre

It is estimated that only one percent of fibre optic cable that has been buried within the past few years is actually being used. Many companies have realised the unused potential of spare ‘dark fibre’ and have begun selling unused fibre to other providers. Other providers are now adding more fibres than necessary when fitting new cables with the intention of selling cable space in the future as demand grows.

Autism spectrum is classified to different disorders as Autism, Asperger syndrome, Childhood disintegrative disorder and Rett syndrome. All these disorders have common symptoms, such as social deficits, communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests and sometimes accompanied by cognitive delays.

Asperger syndrome is named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, whom studied and described the symptoms in the year 1944, but it was not diagnosed until 50 years later by the English psychiatrist Lorna Wing who named it.

The patients of Asperger syndrome don’t have cognitive delays, but they  have high intelligence. The causes of Asperger syndrome are not identified, but it is probably caused by genetic bases. Asperger syndrome or Asperger disorder is distinguished by major difficulties in social interaction, along with the other symptoms.

There are 22 symptoms that characterize Asperger syndrome 

Loneliness, manifested in at least two of the following four signs:
- No close friends;
- Avoids others;
- Has no interest in acquiring friends;
- Prefers to be single
Impaired social interaction, manifested in at least one of the following 5 symptoms:
- Refers to others only with his own needs;
- Awkward social relationships;
- One-sided relationship with peers;
- Difficulty in recognizing the feelings of others;
- Detachment from the feelings of other people
Impaired non-verbal communication, manifested in at least one of the following 7 signs:
- Limited facial expression;
- Not able to read emotions in facial expressions of others;
- Not able to transmit information through the eyes;
- Does not look at others;
- Does not use hands to express himself;
- Gestures are large and clumsy;
- Comes too close to others while speaking
Poor speech, appearing in at least two of the following 6 symptoms:
- Violations of intonation;
- Talks too much;
- Says too little;
- Inability to engage in conversation;
- Idiosyncratic use of words;
- Repetitive speech

Bats are the only flying mammals, as their two front limbs have changed to a sort of wings. The wings of the bats are completely different than the birds wings as they are panels of skin.

Bats are one of the nocturnal animals as they hide and sleep during the day in caves, deserted buildings and trees, they start hunting during the night, in order to avoid the birds.

Bats sleep upside down as they pin their legs on a fixed thing and hang

their till the night.

There are more than 1000 species of bats. The bats can be classified to two parts about three quarters of the bats species depend on their food on insects and other small living organisms, while only about the quarter are herbivores. There are few species that feed on fish, frogs, small mammals or on the blood of the mammals.

The size of the bats vary due to the variation of the species, it start from less than half a centimeter till about 15 centimeters.

Most kinds of bats are poor visioned, they depend on their high sensitive sense of hearing, they produce ultrasonic signals this is called the echolocation. The echolocation allow the bats to recognise the objects in front of them and recognise the food according to those waves.

The female bat can only deliver one pup a year, she takes care of him for about two weeks.

Vampires are a type of bats that feed on the blood of birds, cows, horses and pigs, in rare cases they can even attack humans. When they bite their victim they cut the skin and lick the blood by their tongues.

Numbers include several parts as positive numbers, negative numbers, zero, rational numbers, irrational numbers and complex numbers.

The scientists have discovered signs of tallying system on the caves and on bones, but no one can determine what was the tallying system counting.

The natural numbers appeared in the first counting system which was put about 5500 years ago by the Mesopotamian, it consisted of 60 measurement units. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians followed those measurement. About 5000 years ago the Ancient Egyptians used another type of measurement based on 10 units, as the numeric system that we still follow.

About 3000 years ago The Mesoamerican used the zero as a separator between the numbers. The Indians were the first to use the zero in the counting system.

The negative numbers were first used by the Chinese more than 2000 years ago. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is the name of a mathematical book which contained figures of negative numbers. The Greeks used the negative numbers in the 3rd century in equivalents. But the Indians were the first to use the negative sign as a debit.

The rational numbers or fractional numbers were first used by the Ancient Egyptians, as the fraction numbers were found in the Mathematical Papyrus. While the decimal numbers were first used by the Roman Archimedes (287B.C.-212B. C.) the famous mathematician, physicist, engineer and inventor.

The irrational numbers were first proved by Pythagoras (570 B.C.-495 B.C.) the famous Greek mathematician and philosopher, as he was trying to prove the concepts of  Hippasus, who has suggested the irrational numbers when trying to find the square root of two.

Heron (Hero of Alexandria) the Greek mathematician and engineer(10-70), was the first to mention the complex numbers. The complex numbers are the numbers that can be presented in the form ax+b were a and b are real numbers.

Euclid the Greek mathematician was the first to suggest the prime numbers.

The Indian mathematician Yajurveda was the first to suggest the infinity in the 4th century B.C..

Scorpions are considered a type of arthropods, they have been on earth since hundreds of millions years, as the scientists had found fossils for scorpions that allowed them to determine that long period.

Scorpions are spread all over the world except in Antarctica, although they can live overnight in the freezer. Scorpions prefer to live in the sand, forests and deserts.

There are about 2000 species of scorpions; only less than fifty species of the scorpions are considered man killers. Scorpions are considered one of the predators for their main food the insects, arachnids and small vertebrates. But in the case of the lack of food, they can even live for a long period were there is no food at all by slowing their metabolism to the rate of one insect on the year. But they still keep some power that even at such time, when food appear they can spring very quickly.

The scorpions have a pair of pincers, it uses to grab the prey in order to suck it out. They cannot eat, but they only suck liquids, so the venom it uses on to paralyze the prey will also analyse the inside of the prey to liquid that the scorpion would suck out.

Scorpions are most famous with their venom injecting tale, the venom is secreted through two venom glands. They keep their tale in the upright position all the time. The scorpion attack its prey and paralyze it by injecting the venom through its stinger (barb) at the end of its tail, then kill the prey in order to eat it, they also use the same techniques in the cases of self defense.

The female scorpion is able to produce up to a hundred offspring, the number varies by the species of the scorpion. The mother carries her young scorpions on her back for weeks until they can live independently.

If the male scorpion was not fast enough, the female scorpion would eat him just after mating. The female can also eat her young scorpions in the case of the lack of food.

Scorpions are considered from the nocturnal animals, as they hide during the day and get active and start looking for its food at night.

Some scorpions have from 6 to10 eyes, although their seeing sense is weak. But their sense of smell is very good. The scorpions as all arthropods have 4 pairs of joint legs. The scorpion have a chitin exoskeleton that include ultraviolet light that makes the scorpion glow at night.