Science and Inventions

The atmospheric air is the several gases surrounding earth. It is one of the fundamental factors of starting life on earth and its continuity. The atmospheric air is considered the main cause of life on earth, as it is essential in the photosynthesis process and respiration.

The atmospheric air consists of several gases: Oxygen with the percentage of 20.95%, Argon with the percentage that reaches 0.93%, Carbon Dioxide with the percentage 0.039%, along with some other gases, and the main component is Nitrogen with the percentage of 78.09%. There is also a variable amount of water vapour in the atmospheric air, the water vapour varies due to the season, the geographical location, altitude and other factors.

Nitrogen gas was the first component of the air to be noticed, as it was suspected in the year 1910 by the English physicist John William Strutt. Nitrogen gas the main component of air was isolated in the year 1772 by the Scottish physician and chemist Daniel Rutherford (1749-1819). Also there were other scientists in different parts that were able to reach for the nitrogen as well, as  by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Antoine Lavoisier, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley.

Carbon dioxide gas was first noticed by the Flemish chemist and physician Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579-1644). In the year 1750 the Scottish physician and chemist Joseph Black (1728-1799) was able to discover more properties of carbon dioxide. In the year 1772, Joseph Priestley was able to isolate the carbon dioxide. In the year 1823, the British chemists Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) and Michael Faraday (1791-1867) were able to liquify carbon dioxide.

Oxygen gas was first discovered in the year 1772, by the Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786). The British chemist Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) was able to announce about the oxygen in 1774. In the year 1877, the French physicist Louis-Paul Cailletet (1832-1913) was able to liquify oxygen.

In the year 1785 the British scientist Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) guessed that the argon gas (one of the noble gas) is one of the components of air. The first to prove that were John William Strutt (1842-1919) the English physicist and William Ramsay (1852-1916) the Scottish chemist. They were able to isolate the gas from the air.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) the famous English  physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was the first to mention the air resistance in his laws of motion. He also discovered about the air pressure.

Ants can be considered the most common species among the insects. Ants have been living on earth for about 100 million years. There are more than 12000 species of ants.

Ants live in colonies that could reach up to millions of ants. The ant colony contains one winged queen or several winged queens according to the size of the colony, along with several fertile males and thousands of female workers and soldiers. There are colonies of ants all over the world except for Antarctica, and few uninhabited islands.

When ant workers find food they leave a secreted chemical called pheromone so they would know the way back.

Ants communicate with each other using chemicals. The ant that feels danger produces chemical signals (pheromone) in order to warn the other ants and it also use the chemicals to lead them to food. Ants feel the sounds by the earth vibration and they don’t hear as they don’t have ears.

Ants can eat everything and anything starting from fungus, through insects till they reach meat. As they are considered scavengers and herbivores, they can even described as predators.

Ants can carry objects that can reach up to twenty times its weight.

Ants have three pairs of legs with three joints each. The legs are so strong which enable the ant to run very fast, as fast as a race horse comparing to human when considering the weight of the human and ant.

The ants respire through her body where they have tiny holes that the oxygen get through and carbon dioxide leave through.

In most cases when the ant queen dies, the hole colony would die after a short period as the ant workers are sterile and the only fertile female is the queen.

The jaws of the ant are very powerful, they use to cut the food in order to transfer the pieces to the nest.

The ant own two antennae that it uses in touching, smelling and in fighting.

The Eye of the ant involve many small eyes, so the ant eyes are called compound eyes.

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Blood is the fluid that transfer the oxygen and the nutrient to the cells and take the waste away from the cells. Blood consists of four components, plasma, white blood cells, red blood cells and blood platelets.

The blood circulation is the travel of blood from the heart to all the parts of the body. The blood circulation consists of two circulations, the pulmonary circulation and the bronchial circulation. The pulmonary circulation was first discovered in the year 1242 by Ibn Al-Nafis (1213-1288) the Arabian physician. William Harvey (1578-1657) the English physician was the first to discover the whole blood circulation in the year 1616.

Blood plasma consists of some proteins, glucose, minerals, carbon dioxide that are dissolved in the main ingredient which is water. Plasma was first discovered by Charles Richard Drew (1904-1950) the American physician and surgeon in the year 1938.

Red blood cells consists of hemoglobin and iron protein. The red blood cells were discovered in the year 1658 by Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680) the Dutch biologist using the microscope.

White blood cells, are the first immune line that fights microbes. The white blood cells was discovered in the year 1843 by Gabriel Andral (1797-1876) the French pathologist.

Blood platelets, are the part of blood that is responsible for clotting. The platelets was discovered by Giulio Bizzozero (1846-1901) the Italian physician.

Blood can be classified by different varieties, the first classification is by the pH values. The blood is considered acidic if it was less than 7 or alkaline if it was more than 7 while the 7 is natural. The pH was first discovered in the year 1909 by Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen (1868-1939) the Danish chemist.

Another way to classify the blood is through its type within ABO blood group. The ABO group was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner (1886-1943) the American biologist.

Rhesus factor or commonly known as Rh  factor which is defined to be one of the blood groups, it is is classified as Rh positive and Rh negative. Rh factor was discovered in the year 1937 by Philip Levine (1900-1987) the Russian American physician, along with  Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener (1907-1976) the American researcher. The discovery of the Rh factor led to a safer blood transfusion.

Blood Pressure is the amount of the pressure that the blood make on the walls of the blood vessels. The range of the natural blood pressure is 80-120. Blood pressure was first discovered by the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Egyptians. But the blood pressure measuring was first discovered in the 1847 by Carl Ludwig (1816-1895) the German physician.

Anemia is considered a disorder of the blood, it was first discovered in the year 1904 by James Herrick (1861-1954) the American physician. He was the first to diagnose its symtomps.

Leukemia is the blood cancer, it was first discovered by Alfred Donné (1801-1878) the French bacteriologist and physician.

If you have ever suffered from a limescale problem then you will know that if the problem is not dealt with it can cause untold damage within your home. However, using a magnetic descaler can completely solve the problem, meaning that your home will be safe.

Limescale is very common in the water supply across the UK. There are minerals and deposits such as calcium in all our drinking water, but, if the water is ‘hard’, this can lead to these deposits building up and covering pipes and appliances in a chalky film known as limescale. Limescale is bad for homes, costs money and is also bad for the environment.

Limescale is bad for homes because it can destroy appliances, stopping them from working completely. It can also cost home owners money because appliances affected by limescale will cost more to run. In addition, limescale can be bad for the environment because appliances that have been affected by limescale will use more energy.

Limescale has been a problem in the UK ever since homes first began to receive running water. In the past, most solutions have required home owners to add a chemical compound to their water. Although these compounds are reported to be harmless, it’s always best to avoid imbibing chemicals such as the ones used for limescale removal if it is possible.

That’s why one clever person came up with the idea of a magnetic descaler, which does not require the use of any type of chemicals in order for it to work.

A magnetic descaler works by magnetising the water in your system. This magnetism prevents the mineral deposits within the water from forming into clumps, meaning your home and appliances stay free from limescale. Magnetic descalers are cost effective and do not require the use of harsh chemicals. They are simply fitted within a normal water tank. They do eventually lose their magnetism but a good quality descaler should last several years.

A magnetic descaler does not remove mineral deposits from your water, but in actual fact the water we drink is actually healthier when it includes elements such as calcium and fluoride. Instead, a magnetic descaler changes the composition of the water in your home so you never have to worry about limescale forming again.

If you have a limescale problem but you’re not sure what type of solution to choose, one of the best ways to test your magnetic descaler is to clean your kettle thoroughly before fitting a descaler. You will then see that after several weeks, months and even years that limescale will not form in your kettle thanks to the magic of magnetism.

Electromagnetism is one of the great powers that human use everyday in several uses.

In the year 1812, Michael Faraday (1791-1867) the English chemist and physicist was able to reach for the fact of the electromagnetic field.

In the year 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted (1777-1851) the Danish chemist and physicist was able to reach for a great discovery that the magnetic current are a result of the electric current. He reached that conclusion when he noticed that the compass needle get distracted when exposed to electric current.

André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836) the French mathematician and physicist that was able to figure out the amper, the measuring unit of electricity. In the year 1820, after few days from Hans Christian Ørsted discovery, Ampère had reached to the same relation between electricity and magnetism.

In the year 1832, Hippolyte Pixii (1808-1835) a French machines maker used the concepts of Michael Faraday and was able to manufacture the Dynamo. The Dynamo convert mechanical rotation to electricity depending on the electromagnetic theory.

In the year 1873, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) the Scottish mathematician and physicist was able to combine electricity with magnetism along with the light in a theory. He reached that all of electric, magnetism and light fields travel through space in the form of waves.

In the year 1886, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894) the German physicist, he explained and proved the electromagnetic waves that James Clerk Maxwell suggested.

In the year 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) the famous German-American physicist reached for the special theory of relativity.

Prosthetic implant is a magnificent answer for the pains of people who suffers from arthritic hip, as changing their natural hip. One of disadvantages of the used implanted bones is its limitation in movement. The artificial joints erode by time, so some patients have to repeat the same operation and change the joints if they were young before the first surgery.

The used joints were metal-on-metal joints, and the patients body would form a layer between the layers, scientists were convinced that this layer is made from proteins.

A team of researchers that is composed of engineers and physicians from both Germany and the United States, they were able to analyse the layer between the metals and reached for the components, it is mainly from graphite carbon.

A new study, bringing together an interdisciplinary team of physicians and engineers from the United States and Germany, made a surprising finding about implants used in hip replacement surgery: Graphite carbon is a key element in the lubricating layer that forms on metal-on-metal hip implants. The lubricant has more in common with the lubrication of a combustion engine than that of a natural joint. The study was funded by the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), part of the National Institutes of Health.
To better understand what happens in the artificial joints—and consequently what might be improved upon—the scientist turned to metal joint components that had been removed in revision surgeries and a science called tribology, which focuses on the phenomenon of friction, lubrication and wear.
While researchers knew little about the layer, they assumed that it was from proteins in the body that entered the joint and somehow adhered to the surface of the implant. As such, it would be, similar to lubrication in natural joints.

The concept of the steam power is benefiting from water energy by boiling water and using the steam to generate another form of energy usually mechanical energy.

The first device that used the steam power was the aeolipile, it was made by Heron (the Alexandrian Hero) the Greek mathematician and engineer. He invented the device in the beginnings of the 1st century. The aeolipile rotated due to the exiting of the steam from the pipes, actually no one used the device in a beneficial use, just to show how much power that the steam can produce.

In the year 1551, Taqi al-Din al-Asadi (1526-1585) the Arabian inventor, produced the steam turbine.

In the year 1629, Giovanni Branca (1571-1645) the Italian engineer invented another steam engine.

The first successful invention that used steam power was the steam digester in the year 1679 by Denis Papin (1647-1712) the French inventor. The steam digester is a high pressure cooker that can split fats from bones, the stream digester can be considered the first pressure cooker that we all use till now.

In the year 1690, Denis Papin produced another invention the piston steam.

In the year 1698, the first practical engine using the steam power was produced by Thomas Savery (1650-1715) the English inventor. It was a water pump, although it was exposed to explosions but it was useful in mines.

The atmospheric engine was the first successfully commercially steam powered invention. The atmospheric engine was invented in the year 1712 by Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) the British inventor. The atmospheric engine was used for water pumping, but we can consider it one of the industrial revolution factors. The idea of the engine was using the water after condensing the steam in a cylinder.

The major breakthrough was in the year 1775 when James Watt (1736-1819) the Scottish inventor and engineer improved Thomas Newcomen engine by using a separate condenser. James Watt engine used only 75% of the coal that was used in Thomas Newcomen engine.

In the year 1800, Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) the British inventor invented the high pressure steam engine.

While across the ocean in the year 1801, Oliver Evans (1755-1819) the American inventor was working on another high pressure steam engine.

In the year 1849, George Henry Corliss (1817-1888) the American engineer and inventor produced the Corliss steam engine, which was a great improvement of the previous engines as it used less steam and the speed was higher. The idea of the engine was using four-valve counterflow with separate steam admission.

Writing started first in order to cover the needs of human to register the victories of the rulers, record the colonies, keep the history and to transfer orders and information.

The writing started first in the sort of pictures and signs on the caves thousands of years ago. Ancient people used to carve on stones, wax, clay and vellum to write.

The Chinese writing is the oldest writings discovered as the researchers have found what looks like writing on a tortoise-shell that dates back to 6000 years ago.

The scientists have found during excavations writings that belonged to the ancient Mesoamerican people about 4000 years ago.

The Egyptians writings (hieroglyphic) were in the sort of different signs or shapes that stand for words. The first hieroglyphic found was in the year 3200 B.C..

The Indus Valley (Indian) civilization wrote symbols and strings starting from 2600 B.C. till 1900 B. C.

In the 19th century, the Egyptians developed the first alphabet, it was found in the mines of turquoise in Sinai desert. But the hieroglyphic writings was not understood till Jean-François Champollion (1790-1832) the French scholar and the Egyptian hieroglyphs. He was able to understand the hieroglyphic writings, when he compared it to the Coptic and Greek languages that was in Rosetta stone.

In the 14th century B.C. the Phoenician writings used the hieroglyphic writings to produce their own writings. The Greeks used the Phoenician writings to start the Greek alphabet. Then the Arabic alphabet was also adapted from the Phoenician writings.

The Egyptians were the first to use Papyrus to write 4000 years ago. Papyrus was made from the plants and used as papers to write on with the Stylus which was made from birds feathers.

The Chinese were the first to invent the modern papers in the 2nd century B.C. then it was spread to the Islamic countries then Europe.

The Chinese in the 18th century B.C. were able to reach for the first ink, they used plant dyes, graphite and some minerals.

Tien-Lcheu the Chinese philosopher was the first to invent Indian ink in the year 2697 B.C. using soot, lamp oil and gelatin.

In the 13th century B.C. iron and gum were added to the formula of ink to give more stability.

Electric cars of some kind are likely to be the vehicle of any workable green, environmentally sustainable future. The question is only what kind of electric car will reside behind future garage doors. Currently, the electric-vehicle market is dominated by battery-powered electrics and plug-in hybrids (which are actually battery-electric cars capable of switching over to a conventional internal-combustion engine when the juice runs low while you’re on the road). But, as if a Thomas Edison lightbulb lighting up minds with innovation, there is an alternative to this technology in the works which may prove superior in many respects: the hydrogen-powered fuel cell.
A fuel cell vehicle is an electric car which is powered by electricity generated on board rather than stored in a battery. The electricity comes from a fuel cell that uses hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity, emitting water vapor as a waste product.
The advantages of fuel cells over battery-powered electrics are partly a matter of convenience and party environmental. Manufacture and disposal of batteries have significant environmental costs. Advances in battery technology such as the development of lithium-iron batteries may somewhat reduce the environmental damage from both manufacture and recycling, but as long as batteries depend on scarce lithium, there are limits to how far this can be taken. Richard Suebi’s recent article in CleanTechBlog, “Assaulting Batteries,” described further advances in energy-storage technology that may be coming down the road, but all such possibilities remain speculative at this point. Fuel cell vehicles would simply undercut the entire battery question by producing electricity in the vehicle itself. In terms of convenience, a fuel-cell vehicle would require no time-consuming recharge, but could be refueled in a manner similar to the way it’s done with a conventional vehicle, at a commercial station carrying hydrogen gas – a “gas station” in a more literal sense of that phrase.
The chief disadvantage of fuel cells other than their relative unavailability on the market and, with current platinum-intensive technology, the high price tag, involves the storage of hydrogen gas onboard, which in current models is done with tanks pressurized to 10,000 PSI or more. This represents a certain hazard as is always the case with compressed gas storage, less so in a crash than the gasoline tank of an internal-combustion vehicle but worse than for battery-electrics using the latest battery technology.
GM has been working on a fuel-cell vehicle for over a decade. The company plans to have 1000 fuel-cell vehicles on the road over the next two years and has ambitious long-range plans to have over a million fuel-cell vehicles on the road by 2020. Toyota is also pursuing fuel-cell technology aggressively with a 2015 timetable to have a model on the market. It is likely that more refinements of the technology will be necessary before fuel-cell vehicles become practical.
Another question involves the production of hydrogen fuel itself. A promising possibility involves bio-production of hydrogen using green algae. Alternatively, hydrogen can be produced from water by electrolysis, making it as green as the way we produce electricity.